Eurasian Journal of Soil Science

Abstract

Water scarcity and soil salinity jointly constrain irrigated crop production in the arid regions of Central Asia. This field study evaluated an experimental cotton-linter-based superabsorbent polymer (SAP) as a soil amendment for corn and cotton grown in salt-affected sierozem in Otyrar District, southern Kazakhstan, during 2025. The SAP was produced by grafting acrylic acid onto purified cotton linter, with sodium hydroxide as the neutralizing agent, ammonium persulfate as the initiator, and N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide as the crosslinker. Corn and cotton formed the main plots, and SAP rates of 0, 30, 40, and 50 kg ha⁻¹ formed the subplots in a split-plot randomized complete block design with four blocks. The polymer was incorporated into the seed zone at sowing. Seasonal rainfall was only 12.3 mm, while soil electrical conductivity increased from 3.2 dS m⁻¹ at 0–20 cm to 5.1 dS m⁻¹ at 80–100 cm. Across the tested rate range, crop establishment, yield components, marketable yield, and irrigation water productivity increased progressively with SAP application. Corn grain yield rose from 2.69 Mg ha⁻¹ in the control to 3.60, 5.40, and 6.30 Mg ha⁻¹ at 30, 40, and 50 kg ha⁻¹, respectively; corresponding irrigation water productivity increased from 0.60 to 1.40 kg m⁻³. Seed-cotton yield increased from 2.90 to 4.20, 4.99, and 5.46 Mg ha⁻¹, while irrigation water productivity increased from 0.29 to 0.55 kg m⁻³. Lint percentage remained nearly unchanged, indicating that higher lint yield primarily reflected improved stand establishment and boll production. Post-harvest soil bulk density varied little among SAP rates, with within-depth differences generally not exceeding 0.02 g cm⁻³. Thus, the short-term agronomic response was substantially greater than the measured structural response. Yield, yield-component, and irrigation-water-productivity responses to hydrogel rate were statistically significant (P < 0.05) based on split-plot analysis of variance across four field blocks. The findings provide field evidence that cotton-linter-based SAP can improve corn and cotton productivity under arid, saline–alkaline conditions; multi-season trials, soil-water monitoring, economic evaluation, and full polymer characterization are still required before an optimum rate or long-term environmental performance can be established.

Keywords

Arid agriculture, cotton, corn, irrigation water productivity, saline soil, superabsorbent polymer.

References

<p>Abdallah, A.M., 2019. The effect of hydrogel particle size on water retention properties and availability under water stress. <em>International Soil and Water Conservation Research</em> 7: 275&ndash;285.</p>

<p>Abdelghafar, R., Abdelfattah, A., Mostafa, H., 2024. Effect of super absorbent hydrogel on hydro-physical properties of soil under deficit irrigation. <em>Scientific Reports</em> 14: 7655.</p>

<p>Adjuik, T.A., Nokes, S.E., Montross, M.D., Wendroth, O., 2022. The impacts of bio-based and synthetic hydrogels on soil hydraulic properties: A review. <em>Polymers</em> 14(21): 4721.</p>

<p>Albalasmeh, A.A., Mohawesh, O., Gharaibeh, M.A., Alghamdi, A.G., Alajlouni, M.A., Alqudah, A.M., 2022. Effect of hydrogel on corn growth, water use efficiency, and soil properties in a semi-arid region. <em>Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences</em> 21: 518&ndash;524.</p>

<p>Azimov, A., Iztleuov, G., Omirova, R., Bolysbek, A., Yertayeva, Z., Mat Nawi, N., Eshburiev, T., 2026. Formaldehyde-crosslinked GIPANA&ndash;polyacrylamide hydrogel improves root-zone soil moisture, infiltration, and crop yield under arid irrigation in the Turkistan Region. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 15: 228&ndash;241.</p>

<p>Bektayev, N., Mansurova, K., Kaldybayev, S., Pachikin, K., Erzhanova, K., Absatova, B., 2023. Comprehensive assessment and information database on saline and waterlogged soils in Kazakhstan: Insights from remote sensing technology. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 12(4): 290&ndash;299.</p>

<p>Bremner, J.M., 1996. Nitrogen-total. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3: Chemical Methods. Sparks, D.L. (Ed.). SSSA Book Series 5. Soil Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 1085&ndash;1121.</p>

<p>Chen, J., Wu, J., Raffa, P., Picchioni, F., Koning, C.E., 2022. Superabsorbent polymers: From long-established, microplastics generating systems, to sustainable, biodegradable and future proof alternatives. <em>Progress in Polymer Science</em> 125: 101475.</p>

<p>Demitri, C., Scalera, F., Madaghiele, M., Sannino, A., Maffezzoli, A., 2013. Potential of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogels as water reservoirs in agriculture. International <em>Journal of Polymer Science</em> 2013: 435073.</p>

<p>Essawy, H.A., Ghazy, M.B.M., El-Hai, F.A., Mohamed, M.F., 2016. Superabsorbent hydrogels via graft polymerization of acrylic acid from chitosan&ndash;cellulose hybrid and their potential in controlled release of soil nutrients. <em>International Journal of Biological Macromolecules</em> 89: 144&ndash;151.</p>

<p>Fallahi, H.R., Kalantari, R.T., Aghhavani-Shajari, M., Soltanzadeh, M.G., 2015. Effect of super absorbent polymer and irrigation deficit on water use efficiency, growth and yield of cotton. <em>Notulae Scientia Biologicae</em> 7: 338&ndash;344.</p>

<p>GOST 12536-2014 Soils: Methods of Laboratory Granulometric (Grain-Size) and Microaggregate Distribution. Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification, Moscow. Available at [Access date: 12.04.2026]: https://www.russiangost.com/p-138335-gost-12536-2014.aspx</p>

<p>GOST 26483-85. Soils: Preparation of Salt Extract and Determination of Its pH by the CINAO Method. USSR State Committee for Standards, Moscow. Available at [Access date: 12.04.2026]: https://www.russiangost.com/p-50090-gost-26483-85.aspx</p>

<p>GOST 5180-2015. Soils: Methods for Laboratory Determination of Physical Characteristics. Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification, Moscow. Available at [Access date: 12.04.2026]: https://www.russiangost.com/p-139346-gost-5180-2015.aspx</p>

<p>Guo, Y., Guo, R., Shi, X., Lian, S., Zhou, Q., Chen, Y., Liu, W., Li, W., 2022. Synthesis of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogel with high salt tolerance for soil conditioning. <em>International Journal of Biological Macromolecules</em> 209: 1169&ndash;1178.</p>

<p>G&uuml;neş, A., Kıtır, N., Turan, M., Elkoca, E., Yıldırım, E., Avcı, N., 2016. Evaluation of effects of water-saving superabsorbent polymer on corn (Zea mays L.) yield and phosphorus fertilizer efficiency. <em>Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry </em>40: 365&ndash;378.</p>

<p>Ingrao, C., Strippoli, R., Lagioia, G., Huisingh, D., 2023. Water scarcity in agriculture: An overview of causes, impacts and approaches for reducing the risks. <em>Heliyon</em> 9: e18507.</p>

<p>Kuspangaliyeva, K., Baimakhanov, O., Absatova, B., Otarbayev, B., Shegenbayev, A., Daldabayeva, G., Shomantayev, A., Bulanbayeva, P., 2025. Optimization and evaluation of wastewater and groundwater blending for irrigation in arid regions of Kazakhstan. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 14(4): 359&ndash;375.</p>

<p>Lejcuś, K., Śpitalniak, M., Dąbrowska, J., 2018. Swelling behaviour of superabsorbent polymers for soil amendment under different loads. <em>Polymers</em> 10(3): 271.</p>

<p>Mancosu, N., Snyder, R.L., Kyriakakis, G., Spano, D., 2015. Water scarcity and future challenges for food production. <em>Water</em> 7(3): 975&ndash;992.</p>

<p>Manabaev, N.T., Yussupov, S., Azimov, A., Ibragimova, Z., Userov, A., Kultassov, B., Manabaev, R., Suleimenova, Z., 2026a. Localized hydrogel co-application improves water use efficiency and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield in arid agroecosystems: A resource-optimized strategy. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 15(1): 1&ndash;13.</p>

<p>Manabaev, N.T., Yussupov, S., Azimov, A., Ibragimova, Z., Iztleuov, G., Kultassov, B., Manabaev, R., Yeleuova, E., 2026b. Enhancing barley productivity and water conservation in arid steppes using deep slitting, hydrogel application, and an innovative Combined Seeding Unit (CSU). <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 15(1): 14&ndash;23.</p>

<p>Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S., Dean, L.A., 1954. Estimation of Available Phosphorus in Soils by Extraction with Sodium Bicarbonate. USDA Circular No. 939. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA. 19 p.</p>

<p>Papastylianou, P., Kousta, A., 2020. Effect of superabsorbent polymer on seedling emergence and growth of cotton under water stress conditions. <em>Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Horticulture</em> 77 (1): 85-91.</p>

<p>Piper, C.S., 1966. Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publishers, Bombay, India. 368 pp.</p>

<p>Pribyl, D.W., 2010. A critical review of the conventional SOC to SOM conversion factor. <em>Geoderma</em> 156: 75&ndash;83.</p>

<p>Rowell, D.L., 1996. Soil Science: Methods and Applications. Longman, Harlow, UK. 350 pp.</p>

<p>Saparov, A., 2014. Soil resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Current status, problems and solutions. In: Novel Measurement and Assessment Tools for Monitoring and Management of Land and Water Resources in Agricultural Landscapes of Central Asia. Mueller, L., Saparov, A., Lischeid, G. (Eds.). Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 61&ndash;73.</p>

<p>Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. <em>Soil Science</em> 37: 29&ndash;38.</p>

<p>Womack, N.C., Piccoli, I., Camarotto, C., Squartini, A., Guerrini, G., Gross, S., Maggini, M., Cabrera, M.L., Morari, F., 2022. Hydrogel application for improving soil pore network in agroecosystems: Preliminary results on three different soils. <em>Catena</em> 208: 105759.</p>

<p>Xiong, H., Peng, H., Ye, X., Kong, Y., Wang, N., Yang, F., Meni, B.H., Lei, Z., 2022. High salt tolerance hydrogel prepared of hydroxyethyl starch and its ability to increase soil water holding capacity and decrease water evaporation. <em>Soil and Tillage Research</em> 222: 105427.</p>

<p>Zhao, C., Zhang, L., Zhang, Q., Wang, J., Wang, S., Zhang, M., Liu, Z., 2022. The effects of bio-based superabsorbent polymers on the water/nutrient retention characteristics and agricultural productivity of a saline soil from the Yellow River Basin, China. <em>Agricultural Water Management</em> 261: 107388.</p>

<p>Zheng, H., Mei, P.P., Wang, W., Yin, Y., Li, H., Zheng, M., Ou, X., Cui, Z., 2023. Effects of super absorbent polymer on crop yield, water productivity and soil properties: A global meta-analysis. <em>Agricultural Water Management</em> 282: 108290.</p>

Abstract

Water scarcity and soil salinity jointly constrain irrigated crop production in the arid regions of Central Asia. This field study evaluated an experimental cotton-linter-based superabsorbent polymer (SAP) as a soil amendment for corn and cotton grown in salt-affected sierozem in Otyrar District, southern Kazakhstan, during 2025. The SAP was produced by grafting acrylic acid onto purified cotton linter, with sodium hydroxide as the neutralizing agent, ammonium persulfate as the initiator, and N,N′-methylenebisacrylamide as the crosslinker. Corn and cotton formed the main plots, and SAP rates of 0, 30, 40, and 50 kg ha⁻¹ formed the subplots in a split-plot randomized complete block design with four blocks. The polymer was incorporated into the seed zone at sowing. Seasonal rainfall was only 12.3 mm, while soil electrical conductivity increased from 3.2 dS m⁻¹ at 0–20 cm to 5.1 dS m⁻¹ at 80–100 cm. Across the tested rate range, crop establishment, yield components, marketable yield, and irrigation water productivity increased progressively with SAP application. Corn grain yield rose from 2.69 Mg ha⁻¹ in the control to 3.60, 5.40, and 6.30 Mg ha⁻¹ at 30, 40, and 50 kg ha⁻¹, respectively; corresponding irrigation water productivity increased from 0.60 to 1.40 kg m⁻³. Seed-cotton yield increased from 2.90 to 4.20, 4.99, and 5.46 Mg ha⁻¹, while irrigation water productivity increased from 0.29 to 0.55 kg m⁻³. Lint percentage remained nearly unchanged, indicating that higher lint yield primarily reflected improved stand establishment and boll production. Post-harvest soil bulk density varied little among SAP rates, with within-depth differences generally not exceeding 0.02 g cm⁻³. Thus, the short-term agronomic response was substantially greater than the measured structural response. Yield, yield-component, and irrigation-water-productivity responses to hydrogel rate were statistically significant (P < 0.05) based on split-plot analysis of variance across four field blocks. The findings provide field evidence that cotton-linter-based SAP can improve corn and cotton productivity under arid, saline–alkaline conditions; multi-season trials, soil-water monitoring, economic evaluation, and full polymer characterization are still required before an optimum rate or long-term environmental performance can be established.

Keywords: Arid agriculture, cotton, corn, irrigation water productivity, saline soil, superabsorbent polymer.

References

Abdallah, A.M., 2019. The effect of hydrogel particle size on water retention properties and availability under water stress. International Soil and Water Conservation Research 7: 275–285.

Abdelghafar, R., Abdelfattah, A., Mostafa, H., 2024. Effect of super absorbent hydrogel on hydro-physical properties of soil under deficit irrigation. Scientific Reports 14: 7655.

Adjuik, T.A., Nokes, S.E., Montross, M.D., Wendroth, O., 2022. The impacts of bio-based and synthetic hydrogels on soil hydraulic properties: A review. Polymers 14(21): 4721.

Albalasmeh, A.A., Mohawesh, O., Gharaibeh, M.A., Alghamdi, A.G., Alajlouni, M.A., Alqudah, A.M., 2022. Effect of hydrogel on corn growth, water use efficiency, and soil properties in a semi-arid region. Journal of the Saudi Society of Agricultural Sciences 21: 518–524.

Azimov, A., Iztleuov, G., Omirova, R., Bolysbek, A., Yertayeva, Z., Mat Nawi, N., Eshburiev, T., 2026. Formaldehyde-crosslinked GIPANA–polyacrylamide hydrogel improves root-zone soil moisture, infiltration, and crop yield under arid irrigation in the Turkistan Region. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 15: 228–241.

Bektayev, N., Mansurova, K., Kaldybayev, S., Pachikin, K., Erzhanova, K., Absatova, B., 2023. Comprehensive assessment and information database on saline and waterlogged soils in Kazakhstan: Insights from remote sensing technology. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 12(4): 290–299.

Bremner, J.M., 1996. Nitrogen-total. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 3: Chemical Methods. Sparks, D.L. (Ed.). SSSA Book Series 5. Soil Science Society of America and American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 1085–1121.

Chen, J., Wu, J., Raffa, P., Picchioni, F., Koning, C.E., 2022. Superabsorbent polymers: From long-established, microplastics generating systems, to sustainable, biodegradable and future proof alternatives. Progress in Polymer Science 125: 101475.

Demitri, C., Scalera, F., Madaghiele, M., Sannino, A., Maffezzoli, A., 2013. Potential of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogels as water reservoirs in agriculture. International Journal of Polymer Science 2013: 435073.

Essawy, H.A., Ghazy, M.B.M., El-Hai, F.A., Mohamed, M.F., 2016. Superabsorbent hydrogels via graft polymerization of acrylic acid from chitosan–cellulose hybrid and their potential in controlled release of soil nutrients. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 89: 144–151.

Fallahi, H.R., Kalantari, R.T., Aghhavani-Shajari, M., Soltanzadeh, M.G., 2015. Effect of super absorbent polymer and irrigation deficit on water use efficiency, growth and yield of cotton. Notulae Scientia Biologicae 7: 338–344.

GOST 12536-2014 Soils: Methods of Laboratory Granulometric (Grain-Size) and Microaggregate Distribution. Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification, Moscow. Available at [Access date: 12.04.2026]: https://www.russiangost.com/p-138335-gost-12536-2014.aspx

GOST 26483-85. Soils: Preparation of Salt Extract and Determination of Its pH by the CINAO Method. USSR State Committee for Standards, Moscow. Available at [Access date: 12.04.2026]: https://www.russiangost.com/p-50090-gost-26483-85.aspx

GOST 5180-2015. Soils: Methods for Laboratory Determination of Physical Characteristics. Interstate Council for Standardization, Metrology and Certification, Moscow. Available at [Access date: 12.04.2026]: https://www.russiangost.com/p-139346-gost-5180-2015.aspx

Guo, Y., Guo, R., Shi, X., Lian, S., Zhou, Q., Chen, Y., Liu, W., Li, W., 2022. Synthesis of cellulose-based superabsorbent hydrogel with high salt tolerance for soil conditioning. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 209: 1169–1178.

Güneş, A., Kıtır, N., Turan, M., Elkoca, E., Yıldırım, E., Avcı, N., 2016. Evaluation of effects of water-saving superabsorbent polymer on corn (Zea mays L.) yield and phosphorus fertilizer efficiency. Turkish Journal of Agriculture and Forestry 40: 365–378.

Ingrao, C., Strippoli, R., Lagioia, G., Huisingh, D., 2023. Water scarcity in agriculture: An overview of causes, impacts and approaches for reducing the risks. Heliyon 9: e18507.

Kuspangaliyeva, K., Baimakhanov, O., Absatova, B., Otarbayev, B., Shegenbayev, A., Daldabayeva, G., Shomantayev, A., Bulanbayeva, P., 2025. Optimization and evaluation of wastewater and groundwater blending for irrigation in arid regions of Kazakhstan. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 14(4): 359–375.

Lejcuś, K., Śpitalniak, M., Dąbrowska, J., 2018. Swelling behaviour of superabsorbent polymers for soil amendment under different loads. Polymers 10(3): 271.

Mancosu, N., Snyder, R.L., Kyriakakis, G., Spano, D., 2015. Water scarcity and future challenges for food production. Water 7(3): 975–992.

Manabaev, N.T., Yussupov, S., Azimov, A., Ibragimova, Z., Userov, A., Kultassov, B., Manabaev, R., Suleimenova, Z., 2026a. Localized hydrogel co-application improves water use efficiency and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield in arid agroecosystems: A resource-optimized strategy. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 15(1): 1–13.

Manabaev, N.T., Yussupov, S., Azimov, A., Ibragimova, Z., Iztleuov, G., Kultassov, B., Manabaev, R., Yeleuova, E., 2026b. Enhancing barley productivity and water conservation in arid steppes using deep slitting, hydrogel application, and an innovative Combined Seeding Unit (CSU). Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 15(1): 14–23.

Olsen, S.R., Cole, C.V., Watanabe, F.S., Dean, L.A., 1954. Estimation of Available Phosphorus in Soils by Extraction with Sodium Bicarbonate. USDA Circular No. 939. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, USA. 19 p.

Papastylianou, P., Kousta, A., 2020. Effect of superabsorbent polymer on seedling emergence and growth of cotton under water stress conditions. Bulletin of University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca. Horticulture 77 (1): 85-91.

Piper, C.S., 1966. Soil and Plant Analysis. Hans Publishers, Bombay, India. 368 pp.

Pribyl, D.W., 2010. A critical review of the conventional SOC to SOM conversion factor. Geoderma 156: 75–83.

Rowell, D.L., 1996. Soil Science: Methods and Applications. Longman, Harlow, UK. 350 pp.

Saparov, A., 2014. Soil resources of the Republic of Kazakhstan: Current status, problems and solutions. In: Novel Measurement and Assessment Tools for Monitoring and Management of Land and Water Resources in Agricultural Landscapes of Central Asia. Mueller, L., Saparov, A., Lischeid, G. (Eds.). Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, pp. 61–73.

Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37: 29–38.

Womack, N.C., Piccoli, I., Camarotto, C., Squartini, A., Guerrini, G., Gross, S., Maggini, M., Cabrera, M.L., Morari, F., 2022. Hydrogel application for improving soil pore network in agroecosystems: Preliminary results on three different soils. Catena 208: 105759.

Xiong, H., Peng, H., Ye, X., Kong, Y., Wang, N., Yang, F., Meni, B.H., Lei, Z., 2022. High salt tolerance hydrogel prepared of hydroxyethyl starch and its ability to increase soil water holding capacity and decrease water evaporation. Soil and Tillage Research 222: 105427.

Zhao, C., Zhang, L., Zhang, Q., Wang, J., Wang, S., Zhang, M., Liu, Z., 2022. The effects of bio-based superabsorbent polymers on the water/nutrient retention characteristics and agricultural productivity of a saline soil from the Yellow River Basin, China. Agricultural Water Management 261: 107388.

Zheng, H., Mei, P.P., Wang, W., Yin, Y., Li, H., Zheng, M., Ou, X., Cui, Z., 2023. Effects of super absorbent polymer on crop yield, water productivity and soil properties: A global meta-analysis. Agricultural Water Management 282: 108290.