Eurasian Journal of Soil Science

Abstract

Water deficit and low zinc (Zn) availability frequently co-occur in calcareous soils, constraining sorghum growth and tissue mineral status. This greenhouse study evaluated whether the timing and repetition of foliar Zn application improved aboveground biomass, whole-shoot Zn accumulation, and mineral composition of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) cv. Tagamdyk-2017) under contrasting soil-moisture regimes. A completely randomized 3 × 8 factorial experiment with three replicates combined soil moisture maintained continuously from sowing to harvest at 100% (T1), 75% (T2), or 50% (T3) of field capacity with eight foliar schedules: a water-sprayed control (D0); single applications at the 4–5-leaf (D1), panicle-initiation (D2), or flowering-initiation (D3) stage; three two-stage combinations; and a three-stage D1+D2+D3 program. After 105 d, soil moisture and foliar Zn schedule significantly affected fresh and dry biomass (P < 0.01), whereas their interaction was nonsignificant. Mean dry biomass declined from 34.3 ± 0.5 g pot⁻¹ at T1 to 27.9 ± 0.4 and 20.4 ± 0.3 g pot⁻¹ at T2 and T3, respectively. Across moisture regimes, D1+D2+D3 produced the highest mean fresh biomass (133.0 ± 3.2 g pot⁻¹), dry biomass (29.9 ± 0.8 g pot⁻¹), shoot Zn concentration (34.0 ± 0.8 mg kg⁻¹), and Zn uptake (1.04 ± 0.03 mg pot⁻¹), compared with 114.2 ± 2.5 g pot⁻¹, 25.5 ± 0.6 g pot⁻¹, 14.2 ± 0.3 mg kg⁻¹, and 0.37 ± 0.01 mg pot⁻¹, respectively, in D0. The soil-moisture × foliar-Zn interaction was significant for shoot Zn concentration (P < 0.05) and Zn uptake (P < 0.01). Repeated Zn application was also associated with higher shoot N, P, K, Fe, Cu, and Mn concentrations but did not eliminate the adverse effects of severe soil-moisture limitation. Under the conditions of this pot experiment, repeated foliar Zn application improved whole-shoot Zn status and mineral composition, while soil moisture remained the dominant determinant of biomass production.

Keywords

Sorghum bicolor, calcareous soil, drought stress, foliar zinc, mineral composition, zinc uptake.

References

<p>Akhtar, M., Yousaf, S., Sarwar, N., Hussain, S., 2019. Zinc biofortification of cereals&mdash;role of phosphorus and other impediments in alkaline calcareous soils. <em>Environmental Geochemistry and Health</em> 41: 2365&ndash;2379.</p>

<p>Allison, L.E., Moodie, C.D., 1965. Carbonate. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. Black, C.A., Evans, D.D., White, J.L., Ensminger, L.E., Clark, F.E. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 1379&ndash;1396.</p>

<p>Basga, S.D., Temga, J.P., Tsozu&eacute;, D., Danb&eacute;, N., Nguetnkam, J.P., 2018. Morphological, mineralogical and geochemical features of topomorphic Vertisols used for sorghum production in North Cameroon. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science </em>7: 346&ndash;354.</p>

<p>Blake, G.R., Hartge, K.H., 1986. Bulk density. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. 2nd Edition. Klute, A. (Ed.), American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 363&ndash;375.</p>

<p>Bouyoucos, G.J., 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analyses of soils. <em>Agronomy Journal</em> 54: 464&ndash;465.</p>

<p>Bremner, J.M., Mulvaney, C.S., 1982. Nitrogen&mdash;total. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 595&ndash;624.</p>

<p>Dimkpa, C.O., Singh, U., Bindraban, P.S., Elmer, W.H., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., White, J.C., 2019. Zinc oxide nanoparticles alleviate drought-induced alterations in sorghum performance, nutrient acquisition, and grain fortification. <em>Science of the Total Environment</em> 688: 926&ndash;934.</p>

<p>Ghanem, H.E., Hamza, D.A., Zain El-Abdeen, A.A., Elbatrawy, W.S., El-Habashy, H.M., 2025. Influence of zinc foliar spray on growth, some important physiological processes, yield and yield attributes of bread wheat under water stress. <em>Scientific Reports</em> 15: 14943.</p>

<p>Gonz&aacute;lez-Caballo, P., Barr&oacute;n, V., Torrent, J., Del Campillo, M.C., S&aacute;nchez-Rodr&iacute;guez, A.R., 2022. Wheat and maize grown on two contrasting zinc-deficient calcareous soils respond differently to soil and foliar application of zinc. <em>Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition</em> 22: 1718&ndash;1731.</p>

<p>He, H., Wu, M., Su, R., Zhang, Z., Chang, C., Peng, Q., Dong, Z., Pang, J., Lambers, H., 2021. Strong phosphorus&ndash;zinc interactions in a calcareous soil&ndash;alfalfa system suggest that rational P fertilization should be considered for Zn biofortification on Zn-deficient soils and phytoremediation of Zn-contaminated soils. <em>Plant and Soil</em> 461: 119&ndash;134.</p>

<p>Hui, X., Luo, L., Chen, Y., Palta, J.A., Wang, Z., 2025. Zinc agronomic biofortification in wheat and its drivers: A global meta-analysis. <em>Nature Communications</em> 16: 3913.</p>

<p>Jones, J.B., Jr., 2001. Laboratory Guide for Conducting Soil Tests and Plant Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA.</p>

<p>Karimi, R., Hadi, H., Tajbakhsh, M., 2016. Forage yield of sorghum under water deficit and foliar application of zinc sulphate and salicylic acid. <em>Journal of Agricultural Science and Sustainable Production</em> 26: 169&ndash;187. [in Persian].</p>

<p>Knudsen, D., Peterson, G.A., Pratt, P.F., 1982. Lithium, sodium, and potassium. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 225&ndash;246.</p>

<p>Lindsay, W.L., Norvell, W.A., 1978. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. <em>Soil Science Society of America Journal</em> 42: 421&ndash;428.</p>

<p>Ma, Q., Wang, R., He, F., Wan, W., Liu, X., Zhang, J., Li, K., Ren, M., 2026. Response of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) to various-duration of drought: Physiology, transcriptome, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis. <em>BMC Plant Biology</em> 26: 488.</p>

<p>Markole, S.K., Suresh, K., Madhavi, A., Shanti, M., 2020. Agronomic biofortification and nutrient uptake of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) as influenced by fertilization strategies. <em>International Journal of Chemical Studies</em> 8: 2107&ndash;2110.</p>

<p>Olsen, S.R., Sommers, L.E., 1982. Phosphorus. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 403&ndash;430.</p>

<p>Sattar, A., Wang, X., Ullah, S., Sher, A., Ijaz, M., Irfan, M., Abbas, T., Hussain, S., Nawaz, F., Al-Hashimi, A., Almunqedhi, B.M., Skalick&yacute;, M., 2022. Foliar application of zinc improves morpho-physiological and antioxidant defense mechanisms, and agronomic grain biofortification of wheat under water stress. <em>Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences</em> 29: 1699&ndash;1706.</p>

<p>Shashoug, M.S.A., Abdalla, M.A., Elhadi, E.A., Rezig, F.A.M., 2017. Response of fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)) to sewage sludge treatment and irrigation intervals in a dryland condition. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 6: 144&ndash;153.</p>

<p>Shoormij, F., Mirlohi, A., Saeidi, G., Sabzalian, M.R., Shirvani, M., 2024. Zinc foliar application may alleviate drought stress in wheat species through physiological changes. <em>Plant Stress</em> 13: 100534.</p>

<p>Tautenov, I., Bekzhanov, S., Tokhetova, L., Nurgaliyev, N., Kultassov, B., Demesinova, A., Kaimoldayeva, K., 2026. Effects of primary tillage systems on soil physical properties and grain sorghum productivity after rice in paddy-derived soils under arid conditions of the Kyzylorda region, Kazakhstan. <em>Eurasian Journal of Soil Science</em> 15: 348&ndash;362.</p>

<p>Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. <em>Soil Science</em> 37: 29&ndash;38.</p>

Abstract

Water deficit and low zinc (Zn) availability frequently co-occur in calcareous soils, constraining sorghum growth and tissue mineral status. This greenhouse study evaluated whether the timing and repetition of foliar Zn application improved aboveground biomass, whole-shoot Zn accumulation, and mineral composition of grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) cv. Tagamdyk-2017) under contrasting soil-moisture regimes. A completely randomized 3 × 8 factorial experiment with three replicates combined soil moisture maintained continuously from sowing to harvest at 100% (T1), 75% (T2), or 50% (T3) of field capacity with eight foliar schedules: a water-sprayed control (D0); single applications at the 4–5-leaf (D1), panicle-initiation (D2), or flowering-initiation (D3) stage; three two-stage combinations; and a three-stage D1+D2+D3 program. After 105 d, soil moisture and foliar Zn schedule significantly affected fresh and dry biomass (P < 0.01), whereas their interaction was nonsignificant. Mean dry biomass declined from 34.3 ± 0.5 g pot⁻¹ at T1 to 27.9 ± 0.4 and 20.4 ± 0.3 g pot⁻¹ at T2 and T3, respectively. Across moisture regimes, D1+D2+D3 produced the highest mean fresh biomass (133.0 ± 3.2 g pot⁻¹), dry biomass (29.9 ± 0.8 g pot⁻¹), shoot Zn concentration (34.0 ± 0.8 mg kg⁻¹), and Zn uptake (1.04 ± 0.03 mg pot⁻¹), compared with 114.2 ± 2.5 g pot⁻¹, 25.5 ± 0.6 g pot⁻¹, 14.2 ± 0.3 mg kg⁻¹, and 0.37 ± 0.01 mg pot⁻¹, respectively, in D0. The soil-moisture × foliar-Zn interaction was significant for shoot Zn concentration (P < 0.05) and Zn uptake (P < 0.01). Repeated Zn application was also associated with higher shoot N, P, K, Fe, Cu, and Mn concentrations but did not eliminate the adverse effects of severe soil-moisture limitation. Under the conditions of this pot experiment, repeated foliar Zn application improved whole-shoot Zn status and mineral composition, while soil moisture remained the dominant determinant of biomass production.

Keywords: Sorghum bicolor, calcareous soil, drought stress, foliar zinc, mineral composition, zinc uptake.

References

Akhtar, M., Yousaf, S., Sarwar, N., Hussain, S., 2019. Zinc biofortification of cereals—role of phosphorus and other impediments in alkaline calcareous soils. Environmental Geochemistry and Health 41: 2365–2379.

Allison, L.E., Moodie, C.D., 1965. Carbonate. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. Black, C.A., Evans, D.D., White, J.L., Ensminger, L.E., Clark, F.E. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 1379–1396.

Basga, S.D., Temga, J.P., Tsozué, D., Danbé, N., Nguetnkam, J.P., 2018. Morphological, mineralogical and geochemical features of topomorphic Vertisols used for sorghum production in North Cameroon. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 7: 346–354.

Blake, G.R., Hartge, K.H., 1986. Bulk density. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods. 2nd Edition. Klute, A. (Ed.), American Society of Agronomy and Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 363–375.

Bouyoucos, G.J., 1962. Hydrometer method improved for making particle size analyses of soils. Agronomy Journal 54: 464–465.

Bremner, J.M., Mulvaney, C.S., 1982. Nitrogen—total. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 595–624.

Dimkpa, C.O., Singh, U., Bindraban, P.S., Elmer, W.H., Gardea-Torresdey, J.L., White, J.C., 2019. Zinc oxide nanoparticles alleviate drought-induced alterations in sorghum performance, nutrient acquisition, and grain fortification. Science of the Total Environment 688: 926–934.

Ghanem, H.E., Hamza, D.A., Zain El-Abdeen, A.A., Elbatrawy, W.S., El-Habashy, H.M., 2025. Influence of zinc foliar spray on growth, some important physiological processes, yield and yield attributes of bread wheat under water stress. Scientific Reports 15: 14943.

González-Caballo, P., Barrón, V., Torrent, J., Del Campillo, M.C., Sánchez-Rodríguez, A.R., 2022. Wheat and maize grown on two contrasting zinc-deficient calcareous soils respond differently to soil and foliar application of zinc. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 22: 1718–1731.

He, H., Wu, M., Su, R., Zhang, Z., Chang, C., Peng, Q., Dong, Z., Pang, J., Lambers, H., 2021. Strong phosphorus–zinc interactions in a calcareous soil–alfalfa system suggest that rational P fertilization should be considered for Zn biofortification on Zn-deficient soils and phytoremediation of Zn-contaminated soils. Plant and Soil 461: 119–134.

Hui, X., Luo, L., Chen, Y., Palta, J.A., Wang, Z., 2025. Zinc agronomic biofortification in wheat and its drivers: A global meta-analysis. Nature Communications 16: 3913.

Jones, J.B., Jr., 2001. Laboratory Guide for Conducting Soil Tests and Plant Analysis. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA.

Karimi, R., Hadi, H., Tajbakhsh, M., 2016. Forage yield of sorghum under water deficit and foliar application of zinc sulphate and salicylic acid. Journal of Agricultural Science and Sustainable Production 26: 169–187. [in Persian].

Knudsen, D., Peterson, G.A., Pratt, P.F., 1982. Lithium, sodium, and potassium. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 225–246.

Lindsay, W.L., Norvell, W.A., 1978. Development of a DTPA soil test for zinc, iron, manganese, and copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42: 421–428.

Ma, Q., Wang, R., He, F., Wan, W., Liu, X., Zhang, J., Li, K., Ren, M., 2026. Response of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) to various-duration of drought: Physiology, transcriptome, and weighted gene co-expression network analysis. BMC Plant Biology 26: 488.

Markole, S.K., Suresh, K., Madhavi, A., Shanti, M., 2020. Agronomic biofortification and nutrient uptake of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) as influenced by fertilization strategies. International Journal of Chemical Studies 8: 2107–2110.

Olsen, S.R., Sommers, L.E., 1982. Phosphorus. In: Methods of Soil Analysis. Part 2. Chemical and Microbiological Properties. 2nd Edition. Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin, USA, pp. 403–430.

Sattar, A., Wang, X., Ullah, S., Sher, A., Ijaz, M., Irfan, M., Abbas, T., Hussain, S., Nawaz, F., Al-Hashimi, A., Almunqedhi, B.M., Skalický, M., 2022. Foliar application of zinc improves morpho-physiological and antioxidant defense mechanisms, and agronomic grain biofortification of wheat under water stress. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences 29: 1699–1706.

Shashoug, M.S.A., Abdalla, M.A., Elhadi, E.A., Rezig, F.A.M., 2017. Response of fodder sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.)) to sewage sludge treatment and irrigation intervals in a dryland condition. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 6: 144–153.

Shoormij, F., Mirlohi, A., Saeidi, G., Sabzalian, M.R., Shirvani, M., 2024. Zinc foliar application may alleviate drought stress in wheat species through physiological changes. Plant Stress 13: 100534.

Tautenov, I., Bekzhanov, S., Tokhetova, L., Nurgaliyev, N., Kultassov, B., Demesinova, A., Kaimoldayeva, K., 2026. Effects of primary tillage systems on soil physical properties and grain sorghum productivity after rice in paddy-derived soils under arid conditions of the Kyzylorda region, Kazakhstan. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science 15: 348–362.

Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for determining soil organic matter, and a proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Science 37: 29–38.